30 Second Overview: In 1874, Japan dispatched forces led by Saihsiang Tsungdao to Taiwan, citing the injury of Ryukyuan sailors. This conflict reached its peak in the Stone Ridge battlefield and concluded with the Qing court paying 500,000 taels of silver and acknowledging Japan's "benevolent protection." This incident ended Ryukyu's dual allegiance and prompted the Qing court to initiate "opening the mountains and pacifying the tribes," formally placing Taiwan on the stage of modern governance.
In November 1871, a tributary ship from Miyako Island wrecked in Baoyao Bay (modern-day Pingtung). After 66 crew members landed, 54 were killed by the indigenous peoples of the Gaoshifo and Mudan settlements due to language barriers and cultural misunderstandings 1. This tragedy, known as the "Baoyao Bay Incident," provided the Meiji government with a perfect pretext for external expansion three years later. In May 1874, Japan, despite opposition from Britain and the United States, dispatched an army led by Army Lieutenant General Saihsiang Tsungdao to land in Langqiao (modern Hengchun). This was not merely Japan's first overseas military action since the Meiji Restoration; it was a meticulously planned operation disguised as "civilization" but executed for "territorial acquisition" 2.
Core Tension: Whose Subjects? A Land Without Rulers?
The central conflict of the Mudan Incident lay in the differing perceptions of "sovereignty" and "governance" between the two nations. The Qing court long adhered to a policy of "terra nullius" (land without a master), viewing indigenous territories as "unadministered lands." In the early stages of negotiations, the Qing even argued that responsibility could be deflected by claiming, "The Ryukyuans are subjects of our unadministered territory" 3. However, Japan, guided by advice from Charles Le Gendre, skillfully employed the concept of "terra nullius" within modern international law, arguing that since the Qing court failed to govern the area, Japan had the right to intervene. Le Gendre explicitly stated that because the Qing court designated the territory as unadministered, it implied a lack of substantive sovereignty, allowing Japan to proceed with occupation under international law 4.
📝 Curator's Note: The Qing court's claim of "unadministered land" was originally intended as diplomatic deflection but was instead exploited by Japan as a legal basis for invasion. This debate forced the Qing court to confront modern concepts of sovereignty and ended ambiguous border governance.
| Qing Court Position | Japanese Position |
|---|---|
| Taiwan is an integral part of the territory, but indigenous lands are not governed. | The indigenous lands are "terra nullius"; lack of governance means lack of ownership. |
| Ryukyu is a vassal state of the Qing dynasty; Japan has no right to interfere. | The Ryukyuan people are "subjects of Japan," and military action was taken to protect them. |
| Views the incident as a local conflict requiring peace. | Views the incident as an opportunity for imperial expansion and territorial establishment. |
The Stone Ridge Campaign: The Final Resistance of Aluku and His Son
On May 22, 1874, the fighting ignited in the Stone Ridge Gorge (macacukes). This location is geographically treacherous, flanked by sheer cliffs forming a natural pass. The indigenous chieftain Aluku and his son A-luk led their people, utilizing superior terrain and fire-match muskets to engage the Japanese forces equipped with modern weaponry 5. Despite the fierce fighting of the indigenous warriors, the Stone Ridge Gorge was ultimately lost due to the Japanese army's artillery power and numerical superiority, resulting in the deaths of Aluku and his son 5.
Although the Japanese military achieved a tactical victory, they encountered a more terrifying enemy in the intense heat and dense jungle of southern Taiwan: malaria. Data shows that the number of Japanese soldiers who died from disease during their stay far exceeded those killed in combat.
| 12 People | Combat Deaths (Japanese) | A Small Minority |
|---|---|---|
| 561 People | Disease Deaths (Japanese) | Fever became the greatest threat to the Japanese army. |
| Approx. 20,000 Instances | Cases of Infection | Average of 2–3 infections per person. |
Source: Imperial Japanese Army Archives, Feng Chia University Library 6
Diplomatic Negotiation: "Benevolent Protection" for 500,000 Taels of Silver
As the fighting reached an impasse, the Qing court dispatched Commissioner Shen Baozhen to Taiwan to stabilize the situation. In his memorials, Shen emphasized that "Taiwan is the gateway to the entire province and requires active governance" 7. While strengthening maritime defense, he engaged in diplomatic tug-of-war with the Japanese side. Ultimately, brokered by British Minister William Thomson, both sides signed the Treaty of Beijing. The Qing court agreed to pay 500,000 taels of silver, which included 100,000 taels as indemnity and 400,000 taels for the Japanese military's facilities in Taiwan 8.
| 500,000 Taels of Silver |
|---|
| The total compensation paid by the Qing court to Japan, referred to in the treaty as "indemnity" and "facility purchase." |
| Treaty of Beijing, 1874 |
The most contentious aspect was that the treaty described the Japanese action as "benevolent protection." These four words amounted to an indirect acknowledgment by the Qing court that the Ryukyuan people were subjects of Japan, which directly led to Japan's formal annexation of Ryukyu in 1879 (Ryukyuan Disposition) 6. In his farewell address before withdrawing troops, Saihsiang Tsungdao stated with arrogance: "Since you have committed crimes, repent and reform; my army departs" 9.
Impact: From Peripheral Defense to "Opening the Mountains and Pacifying the Tribes"
The Mudan Incident completely jolted the Qing court into a state of crisis. After the incident, Shen Baozhen remained in Taiwan and initiated the large-scale policy of "opening the mountains and pacifying the tribes." He abolished the ban on crossing Taiwan, building three major thoroughfares—the North, Central, and South roads—the Central Road being the modern-day famous "Eight Pass Ancient Road" 10.
Shen Baozhen's Three Roads
| Route | Responsible Person | Start and End Points |
|---|---|---|
| North Road | Luo Da-chun | Suao to Hualien |
| Central Road | Wu Guang-liang | Linpu (Nantou) to Puxi Gorge (Hualien) |
| South Road | Chang Qiguang | Fengshan to Bainan |
Furthermore, Shen Baozhen established Hengchun County and elevated the status of Taiwan Prefecture, adding Taipei Prefecture, thereby formally incorporating southern and eastern Taiwan into the administrative map. Taiwan transformed from a marginalized island into a strategic gateway for the Qing Empire's maritime defense line 7.
| 1871 | Baoyao Bay Incident | 54 Miyako Island sailors killed. |
|---|---|---|
| May 1874 | Japanese Landing | Saihsiang Tsungdao leads forces to Langqiao. |
| Oct 1874 | Treaty of Beijing | Qing court pays indemnity; Japanese forces withdraw from Taiwan. |
| 1875 | Establishment of Hengchun County | Shen Baozhen promotes "opening the mountains and pacifying the tribes," strengthening governance. |
| 1879 | Ryukyuan Disposition | Japan formally annexes Ryukyu, establishing Okinawa Prefecture. |
Conclusion: The Echo of History in the Gorge
Today, when one walks through the Stone Ridge battlefield, the gorge remains formidable, but the scent of gunpowder from those days has faded with the wind. What the Mudan Incident left behind is not merely a monument atop the mountain, but a profound imprint on Taiwan's journey toward modern state governance. It reminds us that Taiwan's destiny is inextricably linked to the geopolitics of East Asia and the world. From "unadministered land" to "strategic gateway," Taiwan achieved a painful yet necessary awakening of sovereignty in this clash of civilizations.
Further Reading
- The Lo Fa Hao Incident and Zhuo Qi-du — Another maritime disaster and sovereignty clash
- Period of Qing Rule — The shift in governance before and after the "opening the mountains and pacifying the tribes"
- Charles Le Gendre — The American advisor behind the scenes
References
- Wikipedia. (n.d.). Mudan Incident. Cited from — Wikipedia article: Wikipedia entry↩
- Lin Cheng-rong. (June 11, 2001). On the Mudan Incident from the perspective of East Asian international affairs. Taiwan Historical Society. Cited from — See supplementary materials in the original link↩
- Lin Wen-kai. (n.d.). Taiwan and the Imperial Transformation of East Asia: The Mudan Incident. Academia Sinica Ming Qing Research Committee. Cited from — Academia Sinica↩
- Reporter. (September 16, 2021). A tangled history revealed by a manuscript: For whom did Charles Le Gendre fight? Cited from — See supplementary materials in the original link↩
- Indigenous Peoples Encyclopedia. (n.d.). Mudan Incident. Cited from — See supplementary materials in the original link↩
- Feng Chia University Library. (March 15, 2024). Mosquito Killers: From the Mudan Incident to "Taiwan Fever." Cited from — See supplementary materials in the original link↩
- StoryStudio. (July 7, 2024). Abolishing the Ban on Crossing Taiwan and Initiating Governance in Taiwan's Borderlands: Shen Baozhen after the Mudan Incident. Cited from — See supplementary materials in the original link↩
- Indigenous Peoples Archives. (n.d.). Map History and Spatial Exploration of the Mudan Incident. Cited from — See supplementary materials in the original link↩
- National Taiwan Museum. (n.d.). Research on Artifacts Related to the "Mudan Incident." Cited from — See supplementary materials in the original link↩
- National Palace Museum of Fine Arts. (n.d.). "Opening the Mountains and Pacifying the Tribes"—The Qing Empire and Taiwan's Indigenous Peoples. Cited from — See supplementary materials in the original link↩