Development of Contemporary Sculpture in Taiwan

30-Second Overview

Contemporary sculpture in Taiwan evolved from traditional woodcarving crafts through three pivotal generations: Huang Tu-shui (黃土水) laid the foundations for modern sculpture; Yang Ying-feng (楊英風) established a contemporary sculptural vocabulary; and Ju Ming (朱銘) integrated Eastern spirituality into a global vision. Since the modern sculpture movement of the 1960s, Taiwanese sculptors have achieved significant breakthroughs in material usage, thematic expression, and spatial concepts. Today, exhibition spaces such as the Ju Ming Museum of World Master Sculpture and various outdoor sculpture parks are spread across Taiwan. A new generation of artists, including Lin Shun-lung (林舜龍) and Hung Yi (洪易), continues to drive diverse developments, while Taiwanese sculpture has gained significant visibility and recognition in international collections and exhibitions.

Ju Ming passed away in April 2023 at the age of 85. The museum he established and his creative legacy serve as essential coordinates for understanding how Taiwanese sculpture moved onto the international stage¹.

This article takes approximately 18 minutes to read and is suitable for readers interested in Taiwan's art history, public art, or sculptural media.

Keywords: Tai Chi series, Human World series, modern sculpture, public art, material innovation, Eastern aesthetics

Why It Matters

The development of contemporary sculpture in Taiwan holds multi-layered significance. On one hand, sculptural works document Taiwan's societal transformation from an agrarian society to industrialization and into postmodern culture; on the other hand, the implementation of public art policies has moved sculpture out of museums and into everyday living spaces, changing the relationship between the general public and artworks.

For those interested in cultural policy, the development of Taiwanese sculpture serves as a case study of "how policy drives an artistic ecosystem"—from the education system and creative subsidies to public art regulations, every link has shaped today's sculptural landscape.

From folk themes to contemporary issues, sculptural works reflect Taiwan's social changes and cultural identity; traditional woodcarving techniques have been transformed by contemporary artists into new expressive vocabularies, preserving and deepening the memory of cultural craftsmanship.

• International Standing: Taiwanese sculptors have achieved great success in international exhibitions, enhancing Taiwan's cultural soft power.
• Beautification of Public Space: A large number of high-quality sculptures have entered public spaces, improving urban aesthetic quality.
• Educational Heritage: The establishment of a systematic sculpture education system has nurtured a new generation of creative talent.

Context of Taiwan's Sculptural Development

The history of Taiwanese sculpture can be divided into three layers: the folk craft tradition represented by temple woodcarving; the modern transformation during the Japanese colonial period that introduced Western realistic sculpture; and the master generation that established a contemporary art vocabulary after World War II. These three layers are not strictly separated but rather overlap to form the diverse face of contemporary Taiwanese sculpture.

The roots of craftsmanship were embedded in an immigrant society, where the demand for religious carving supported the entire apprenticeship system. During the Japanese colonial period, the official exhibition system opened a window to Western realistic techniques, while the establishment of the post-war fine arts education system provided the soil for the master generation to flourish.

From Huang Tu-shui becoming the first Taiwanese person selected for the Imperial Art Exhibition (Teiten) with Boy Playing the Flute in 1920 and again with Sweet Dew in the third Teiten in 1921², to Taiwanese sculpture stepping onto the international stage in the 1990s, this evolution spans seventy years, involving three distinct historical contexts: colonial education, post-war cultural construction, and globalization.

Traditional Foundations: Deep Roots of Folk Craft

Temple Woodcarving Tradition:

• Carving techniques brought by immigrants during the Ming and Qing dynasties.
• Exquisite craftsmanship in deity carving and architectural decoration.
• A technical inheritance system based on the master-apprentice model.

Characteristics of Craft Carving:

• Emphasis on practical function and decorative effects.
• Rich folk stories and mythological themes.
• Delicate manual techniques and tool usage.

Regional Style Variations:

• North: Relatively simple and concise.
• Central: Ornate and elaborate decoration.
• South: Passionate, unrestrained, and free.

Modern Transformation: The Leap from Craft to Art

Huang Tu-shui (1895–1930): Taiwan's first generation of modern sculptors.

• Work Characteristics: A fusion of Japanese realism and Taiwanese local themes.
• Representative Works: Sweet Dew (1921), The Formosan Black Bear (1922), Water Buffaloes (1930)².
• Historical Significance: Pioneered modern sculpture in Taiwan.

Development during the Japanese Colonial Period:

• The official exhibition system introduced Western sculptural concepts.
• Fine arts education systems were gradually established.
• Modernization and improvement of materials and techniques.

Contemporary Establishment: The Foundation by the Master Generation

Yang Ying-feng (1926–1997): A founder of modern sculpture³.

Artistic Philosophy:

• Emphasis on spirituality and Eastern aesthetics.
• Proposed the concept of "Lifescape Sculpture" around the 1980s⁴.

Important Works:

• The Arrival of the Phoenix: A massive red steel landscape sculpture in front of the Republic of China Pavilion at the 1970 Osaka Expo⁴.
• Taroko Landscape Series: Expressing the beauty of Taiwan's mountains through abstract methods.
• Landscape sculpture planning for the new terminal plaza and departure hall of Kaohsiung International Airport⁴.

Creative Characteristics:

• Innovative use of stainless steel materials.
• Combination of geometric abstraction and organic forms.
• Holistic consideration of environmental space.

Ju Ming: The Taiwanese Sculptor from Local Roots to International Fame

Ju Ming (1938–2023) is the most internationally recognized artist in the history of Taiwanese sculpture¹. His creative journey began with traditional woodcarving, was guided into the realm of contemporary art by Yang Ying-feng, and eventually developed into two major creative systems: the Tai Chi series and the Human World series. His works are collected across Europe, America, and Asia.

Artistic Journey and Stylistic Evolution

Early Local Series (1970s):

Apprenticeship Background:

• Began apprenticing under Li Chin-chuan, a carver at the Ci-hui Temple in Tongxiao, in 1953, completing his training after three years and four months.
• Became a disciple of Yang Ying-feng in 1968, studying modern sculpture for eight years⁵.
• Transformed from a craft artisan to a contemporary artist.

Representative Works:

• Shepherd Boy: A depiction of simple rural life.
• Working Together: A vivid presentation of village life.
• Water Buffalo: A perfect combination of strength and beauty.

Creative Characteristics:

• Retaining the essence of traditional woodcarving techniques.
• Emphasizing the expression of vitality in the work.
• Simplified methods that "discard form to preserve spirit."

Tai Chi Series: The Perfect Fusion of East and West

Creative Philosophy:

• Translating the bodily movements of Tai Chi into sculptural vocabulary.
• Pursuing an aesthetic balance between motion and stillness.
• Embodying the Yin-Yang harmony of Chinese philosophy.

Technical Characteristics:

• Retention of large, axe-cut textures.
• Simplified forms that emphasize momentum.
• An expressive method that is both abstract and figurative.

Important Works:

• Tai Chi Series - Single Whip
• Tai Chi Series - Sparring
• Tai Chi Series - Opening Posture

International Influence:

• A solo exhibition at the Tokyo Central Art Museum in 1977 caused a sensation.
• A large-scale exhibition at Place Vendôme, Paris, in 1997.
• Established the status of Taiwanese sculpture in the international art scene.

Human World Series: Deep Observations of Contemporary Life

Creative Shift:

• A new creative phase beginning in the 1980s.
• Moving from traditional culture toward observations of contemporary society.
• Diversified attempts at material usage.

Thematic Content:

The Soldier series reflects on war and peace, while the Athlete series showcases the beauty of human movement.

• Ballet Series: A dialogue between Eastern and Western art.
• Three Services Series: An artistic interpretation of military culture.

Material Innovation:

• Clay: Retaining tactile and rustic qualities.
• Sponge: Bold experimentation with experimental materials.
• Stainless Steel: Use of modern industrial materials.
• Styrofoam: Exploration of lightweight materials.
• Bronze: A modern interpretation of traditional materials.

Ju Ming Museum of World Master Sculpture: An Important Base for Art Education

Establishment Background:

The Ju Ming Museum opened in the Jinshan District of New Taipei City in 1999. It took twelve years from its planning in 1987 to its opening. As a museum themed around a single artist, it presents Ju Ming's complete creative journey from local woodcarving to the Human World series⁶. Following Ju Ming's passing on April 22, 2023, at age 85, the museum remains open to the public as the primary institution for preserving his artistic legacy¹.

Spatial Design:

• Integration of an outdoor sculpture park with indoor exhibition spaces.
• Set within a natural environment overlooking mountains and the sea.
• A harmonious dialogue between artworks and the environment.

Educational Function:

• Sculpture education promotion programs.
• Artist-in-residence mechanisms.
• An international platform for sculptural exchange.

Diverse Explorations by the New Generation of Sculptors

Sculptors born between the 1950s and 1970s, such as Lin Shun-lung and Hung Yi, have carved out a creative path starting from public spaces within Taiwan's contemporary art ecosystem. Their works are widely installed in urban public spaces, making direct contact with the general public and forming social relationships different from those of the master generation.

Lin Shun-lung excels in land art, using natural materials like bamboo to create large-scale installations in outdoor spaces; Hung Yi is famous for his brightly colored animal sculptures that blend elements of Taiwanese folk art, resulting in works that are approachable and highly recognizable. Additionally, artists from different generations—such as Liao Ying-hsi (廖迎晰), Chen Cheng-hsiung (陳正雄), Pu Hao-ming (蒲浩明), and Li Yi-hsun (李億勳)—have deeply cultivated various directions including painted stainless steel, woodcarving, bronze portraiture, and mosaic public art.

The growth period of these new-generation sculptors coincided with the large-scale implementation of Taiwan's public art policies. The creative opportunities and market support provided by these policies have, to some extent, shaped the creative paths of this generation of artists.

Lin Shun-lung: Poet of Environmental Art

Creative Philosophy:

• Focus on environmental ecology and humanistic care.
• Creating land art using natural materials.
• Emphasizing the symbiotic relationship between art and the environment.

Important Works:

• Crossing Borders · Sea (Seed Ship): Created in 2013 using driftwood to form the shape of a Manulea (棋盤腳) fruit; it returned for the Setouchi Triennale in 2016 and is permanently collected by Kagawa Prefecture⁷.
• Seedling—A Seed Fell from the Sky: Located in the Houli Forest Park during the 2018 Taichung Flora Exposition, a giant seed measuring 12 meters in diameter and 15 meters high, constructed from interlocking Moso and Taiwan bamboo⁸.
• Crossing Borders · Wave: A sea urchin-like space composed of over 4,000 bamboo poles at the 2019 Setouchi Triennale on Shodoshima Island⁹.

Creative Characteristics:

• Ingenious use of natural materials like bamboo.
• Environmental integration of large outdoor installations.
• Ability to create poetic spaces.

Hung Yi: Vibrant Contemporary Expression

Artistic Style:

• Brightly colored animal sculptures.
• Integration of Taiwanese folk art elements.
• Combination of modern materials and traditional patterns.

Representative Works:

• Ox series: A contemporary interpretation of the Taiwanese water buffalo.
• Lucky Monkey: The main light for the 2016 Taipei Lantern Festival.
• Handsome Monkey King: Combining traditional mythology with modern aesthetics.

Creative Characteristics:

• Proficient use of fiberglass materials.
• Modern transformation of folk auspicious patterns.
• Approachable qualities of public art.

Other Important Contemporary Sculptors

Liao Ying-hsi (1968–):

• Graduated from the Western Painting group at Tunghai University's Graduate Institute of Fine Arts; transitioned from 2D to 3D creation in 2008.
• Uses stainless steel and painted forms, continuing the linear concept of "gene sequences."
• Serves as both an artist and an international curator¹⁰.

Chen Cheng-hsiung (1942–):

• A woodcarver from Tainan; apprenticed at a Beigang Buddha statue shop and under Master Li Huan-mei in Lukang starting in 1955, completing his training in 1958.
• His knife work fuses Tangshan master traditions, Taiwanese Buddhist imagery, Japanese itto-bori (one-cut carving), and Western realism.
• Recipient of the Wu San-lien Literary Award (1983) and the Japan New Structure Award (1989); held a solo exhibition at the Tainan Art Museum in 2021¹¹.

Pu Hao-ming (1944–):

• Son of sculptor Pu Tien-sheng; participated in statue production with his father for thirteen years.
• Studied at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Brussels, Belgium, and in Paris, France, in 1980.
• Specializes in realistic bronze portraiture; featured in the 2024 Tainan Art Museum exhibition "Temperature: Pu Tien-sheng × Pu Hao-ming Father and Son Sculpture Exhibition"¹².

Li Yi-hsun:

• Creates public art using mixed media mosaic collage.

Public Art and Urban Space

In 1992, the Cultural and Artistic Grants Act established the "1% Public Art" policy, requiring public works projects to allocate 1% of their budget to installing artworks¹³. This policy changed the production methods of Taiwanese sculpture: artists gained a stable source of commissions, and urban spaces accumulated a vast number of sculptural works.

According to statistics from the Ministry of Culture, as of December 2023, Taiwan has completed a cumulative total of 5,537 public art works, involving over 2,000 artists, experts, and scholars, spread across transportation hubs, campuses, parks, and government agencies¹⁴. Behind this number lies a complex institutional machine consisting of committee reviews, community participation, and artist bidding; its operational efficiency and controversies remain subjects of discussion within the cultural policy community.

Maintaining artistic quality within budget constraints and administrative processes is a long-term challenge for public art policy; some works have been damaged or removed due to lack of maintenance, sparking discussions regarding the sustainability of public art.

Development of Public Art Policy

Legalization Process:

• 1992 Cultural and Artistic Grants Act.
• Formulation of Public Art Installation Regulations.
• Implementation of the "1% Public Art" policy.

Installation Mechanisms:

• Public works must allocate 1% of funds for art installation.
• Professional committee review system.
• Community-participatory creation processes.

Effectiveness Evaluation:

• Cumulative total of 5,537 public art works completed across Taiwan (as of December 2023)¹⁴.
• Improved urban aesthetic quality.
• Increased creative opportunities for artists.

Important Public Sculpture Cases

Transportation Hub Landmarks:

• Dome of Light at Kaohsiung MRT Formosa Boulevard Station (by Italian glass artist Narcissus Quagliata, referred to in Taiwan as "Master Narcissus").
• Yang Ying-feng's landscape sculpture at Kaohsiung International Airport⁴.

Commercial Landmark Public Art:

• LOVE by Robert Indiana and Infinite Life by Kang Mu-hsiang (made from decommissioned elevator steel cables) at Taipei 101¹⁵.

Campus Art Education:

• Educational sculptures installed in schools at all levels.
• Artist-in-residence programs in campuses.
• Collaborative creation mechanisms between teachers and students.

Sculpture Parks and Exhibition Spaces

Professional Exhibition Venues:

• Ju Ming Museum of World Master Sculpture: Jinshan District, New Taipei City.
• Chimei Museum Park: Rende District, Tainan.
• National Taiwan Museum of Fine Arts Park Outdoor Sculptures: West District, Taichung.

Urban Sculpture Parks:

• Taichung Feng-le Sculpture Park.

International Sculpture Festivals:

• Hualien International Stone Carving Art Festival.

Innovative Development in Materials and Techniques

The development of Taiwanese sculpture in terms of materials and techniques reflects the changing material conditions of the entire artistic ecosystem. From the traditional handiwork of temple woodcarving to the exploration of stainless steel and bronze in the 1960s–80s, and finally to the widespread use of mixed media and digital tools by contemporary artists, every shift in material is accompanied by corresponding developments in craft education and industrial support.

Yang Ying-feng's innovative use of stainless steel and Ju Ming's experiments with non-traditional media like sponge and Styrofoam once sparked significant debate within the art world. A new generation of artists has introduced 3D printing and laser cutting, altering both the threshold for production and the possibilities of form.

Taiwan's tradition of technical education in crafts (especially woodcarving and metalworking) provides a foundation of skilled labor for sculptural art; institutions such as the National Taiwan University of Arts and the National Tainan University of the Arts have also trained a group of creators with a deep mastery of media¹⁶.

Modern Interpretation of Traditional Materials

Woodcarving Technique Innovation:

• Artistic elevation of traditional techniques.
• Introduction and application of new tools.
• Improvement of preservation and treatment technologies.

Stone Carving:

• Development and utilization of local Taiwanese stone.
• Exquisite processing of marble and granite.
• Combination of modern machinery and manual labor.

Metal Casting:

• Localization of bronze casting techniques.
• Use of modern alloy materials.
• Development of precision mold-making technologies.

Experimental Exploration of Contemporary Materials

Industrial Materials:

• Creative possibilities of stainless steel.
• Lightweight advantages of aluminum alloys.
• Structural expression of steel materials.

Mixed Media:

• Combinations of resin and fiber.
• Fusion of ceramics and metal.
• Dialogue between natural and artificial materials.

Emerging Technologies:

• Artistic application of 3D printing technology.
• Digital sculpture design software.
• Precision processing via laser cutting.

Technical Education and Inheritance

Academic Education System:

• Sculpture tracks within fine arts departments.
• Craft carving departments within vocational systems.
• In-depth professional training at the graduate level.

Master-Apprentice System:

• Traditional craft master certification systems.
• Promotion of technical inheritance programs.
• Youth apprenticeship mechanisms.

Studio Culture:

• Individual artist studios.
• Shared studio models.
• International artist residency exchanges.

International Exchange and Overseas Influence

The international visibility of Taiwanese sculpture has been established primarily through two paths: individual artists' overseas exhibitions (exemplified by Ju Ming's 1977 Tokyo exhibition and 1997 Place Vendôme exhibition in Paris) and institutional participation, such as the Taiwan Pavilion at the Venice Biennale led by the government. The two complement each other, jointly shaping the image of Taiwanese sculpture abroad.

It is noteworthy that the international visibility of Taiwanese sculpture relies heavily on the prestige of individual artists—Ju Ming's name is almost synonymous with Taiwanese sculpture internationally. This high degree of concentration indicates both Ju Ming's extraordinary achievements and suggests there is still room to develop systematic efforts to promote the "Taiwan Sculpture" brand.

In recent years, overseas artist residency programs promoted by the Ministry of Culture and various local governments have provided Taiwanese sculptors with more opportunities to engage with the international art ecosystem, accumulating diverse international representation beyond Ju Ming¹³.

International Visibility of Taiwanese Sculpture

Important International Exhibitions:

• Participation in the Taiwan Pavilion at the Venice Biennale.
• Setouchi Triennale and Echigo-Tsumari Art Triennale (Lin Shun-lung)⁷.

Overseas Solo Exhibutions:

• Ju Ming's solo exhibition at the Tokyo Central Art Museum (1977) and large-scale exhibition at Place Vendôme, Paris (1997)¹.
• Yang Ying-feng's solo exhibition in Milan (1964)⁴.

International Collection Recognition:

• Collections by major museums in Europe and America.
• Participation in international art fairs.
• Favor from private collectors.

Cultural Diplomacy and Artistic Exchange

Government-Promoted Programs:

• Ministry of Culture overseas artist residencies.
• International sculpture workshops and exchanges.
• Implementation of bilateral cultural agreements.

Academic Cooperation and Exchange:

• International sculpture symposiums.
• Transnational collaborative creation projects.
• Technical and methodological exchange visits.

Market Expansion Opportunities:

• Participation in the international art market.
• Overseas promotion by gallery agents.
• Increased value for collection and investment.

Contemporary Issues and Future Development

The challenges facing contemporary Taiwanese sculpture have shifted from "how to establish a contemporary vocabulary" to "how to maintain one's own perspective within a globalized context." Environmental ecology, multiculturalism, and digital technology are currently the most concentrated topics of discussion in the Taiwanese sculptural community.

The rise of contemporary Indigenous sculpture is a significant phenomenon in Taiwan's sculptural field in recent years: Rahic Talif (拉黑子·達立夫) uses driftwood and marine debris as materials, combining them with Amis cultural memory¹⁷; Sakuliu Pavavalung (撒古流·巴瓦瓦隆) develops a unique contemporary sculptural language starting from traditional Rukai totems. These creations are both artistic expressions and declarations of Indigenous cultural subjectivity¹⁶.

The visibility of female sculptors has also increased in recent years; themes such as gender issues, body politics, and ecological ethics have brought new layers of discourse to contemporary Taiwanese sculpture, ensuring that discussions in this field are no longer limited to technique and form.

Artistic Responses to Social Issues

Environmental Protection Awareness:

• Creations using recycled waste.
• Themes of ecological environmental care.
• Promotion of sustainable materials.

Multicultural Dialogue:

• Revitalization of Indigenous sculptural culture.
• Expressions of integration in New Immigrant culture.
• Cross-ethnic artistic collaboration.

Gender Equality Expression:

• Rising status of female sculptors.
• Exploration of works regarding gender issues.
• Breaking traditional gender stereotypes.

New Challenges in the Digital Age

Virtual Reality Integration:

• Application of VR technology in sculpture exhibition.
• Digital sculpture design tools.
• Online museum visiting experiences.

Social Media Influence:

• Changes in how works are disseminated.
• Innovation in audience participation models.
• Real-time interactive feedback mechanisms.

NFTs and Digital Collection:

• Certification of digital sculptural works.
• Application of blockchain technology.
• Emerging modes of collection and investment.

Future Development Trends

Diversification of Creative Themes:

• Concern for global issues.
• Deep excavation of local culture.
• Increased cross-disciplinary collaboration.

Continuous Technical Innovation:

• Continuous development of new materials.
• Refinement and improvement of production methods.
• Deep integration of digital technology.

Deepening Educational Promotion:

• Rooting aesthetic education in the community.
• Increasing community art participation.
• Frequent international exchanges.

Conclusion

The developmental history of contemporary sculpture in Taiwan is a compelling story of moving from traditional crafts to the international art scene. From Huang Tu-shui's modernization to Yang Ying-feng's construction of contemporaneity, and Ju Ming's international breakthrough, each generation of sculptors has added new layers and meanings to Taiwanese sculptural art¹⁸.

In the era of globalization, Taiwanese sculptors face both new opportunities and challenges. How to absorb international trends while maintaining cultural characteristics; how to maintain artistic essence amidst technical innovation; and how to persist in creative ideals under commercial considerations are all important issues that the development of contemporary sculpture must address.

From the establishment of the Ju Ming Museum to the construction of sculpture parks across the country, and from the promotion of public art policies to the deepening of international exchanges, Taiwanese sculptural art is developing toward a more diverse, open, and international direction. These precious cultural assets not only enrich Taiwan's artistic landscape but also serve as important bridges connecting the past and future, and the local with the international.

Through every sculpture, we see not just the ingenuity and skill of the artist, but the depth and breadth of Taiwanese culture. Within three-dimensional space, Taiwanese sculptors use their hands to carve out the memories and dreams of the island.

References

1. Wikipedia "Ju Ming (sculptor)" entry — Ju Ming's life, apprenticeship, 1977 Tokyo Central Art Museum and 1997 Place Vendôme exhibitions, twelve years of museum planning, passed away on April 22, 2023.↩²³⁴
2. Wikipedia "Huang Tu-shui" entry — Boy Playing the Flute selected for the second Teiten in 1920, Sweet Dew selected for the third Teiten in 1921, The Formosan Black Bear (1922), Water Buffaloes (1930).↩²
3. Yang Ying-feng Museum — Digital archives of The Complete Works of Yang Ying-feng and exhibition information.↩
4. Wikipedia "Yang Ying-feng" entry — 1970 Osaka Expo The Arrival of the Phoenix, 1964 Milan solo exhibition, Taroko Landscape series, Lifescape sculpture concept, Kaohsiung International Airport commission.↩²³⁴⁵
5. China Times "Master Ju Ming's Path: Yang Ying-feng's Exhibition Reveals Talent, Tai Chi Series Sensation in Japan" — Ju Ming's 1977 Tokyo exhibition and relationship with mentor Yang Ying-feng (April 23, 2023).↩
6. Ju Ming Museum of World Master Sculpture — Official website, information on exhibitions, complete works, and educational promotion.↩
7. Ministry of Culture Cross-domain Co-creation Project: Artist Lin Shun-lung's [Seed Ship] returns to "Setouchi Triennale 2016" — 2013 Crossing Borders · Sea driftwood seed ship, installed at the Setouchi Triennale main site in 2016, permanently collected by Kagawa Prefecture.↩²
8. Liberty Times "A Seed Fell from the Sky! Flora Exposition Creation Conveys Hope and Vitality" — 2018 Taichung Flora Exposition Houli Forest Park Seedling—A Seed Fell from the Sky, Moso and Taiwan bamboo, 12m diameter, 15m height.↩
9. MOT TIMES Interview with Lin Shun-lung: A Space Built with 4,000 Bamboo Poles — 2019 Setouchi Triennale Shodoshima Crossing Borders · Wave.↩
10. Non-Pond Art Network Artist Page for Liao Ying-hsi — Born in Taichung in 1968, studied Western Painting at Tunghai University Graduate Institute of Fine Arts, transitioned to 3D creation in 2008, also an international curator.↩
11. Tainan Art Museum "Anping · Peace · People—Chen Cheng-hsiung 2021 Sculpture Preview Exhibition" — Born in Tainan in 1942, apprenticed from 1955, completed training in 1958, recipient of Wu San-lien Literary Award (1983) and Japan New Structure Award (1989).↩
12. Tainan Art Museum "Temperature: Pu Tien-sheng x Pu Hao-ming Father and Son Sculpture Exhibition" — Pu Hao-ming graduated from the Department of Fine Arts, China Culture University in 1967, studied with his father for thirteen years, went to Brussels and Paris for advanced studies in 1980.↩
13. Ministry of Culture Official Public Art Website — Information on Taiwan's public art policy, regulations, and installation cases.↩²
14. Ministry of Culture press release on revised "Public Art Installation Regulations" — 2024-08-02: "As of last December, a total of 5,537 works have been completed, involving over 2,000 artists and experts/scholars."↩²
15. Wikipedia "Taipei 101" entry §Public Art — Robert Indiana's LOVE and 1-0, Kang Mu-hsiang's Infinite Life (decommissioned elevator cables), Chuang Pu's Ring of the World, etc.↩
16. National Taiwan University of Arts — Department of Sculpture course information.↩²
17. Wikipedia "Rahic Talif" entry — Amis artist, specializes in driftwood carving, using marine debris, fishing nets, and rebar as materials.↩
18. Chinese Culture University General Education "Three Giants of Taiwan Sculpture—From Huang Tu-shui, Yang Ying-feng to Ju Ming" lecture page — Presented by Professor Hsiao Chien-jui of National Cheng Kung University, comparing three generations.↩